Music has been proved beneficial to improve learning and memory in many species including human in previous research work. Although some genes have been identified to contribute to the mechanisms, it is believed that the effect of music is manifold, behind which must concern a complex regulation network. To further understand the mechanisms, we exposed the mice to classical music for one month. The subsequent behavioral experiments showed improvement of spatial learning capability and elevation of fear-motivated memory [emphasis added] in the mice with music-exposure as compared to the naïve mice. Meanwhile, we applied the microarray to compare the gene expression profiles of the hippocampus and cortex between the mice with music-exposure and the naïve mice. The results showed approximately 454 genes in cortex (200 genes up-regulated and 254 genes down-regulated) and 437 genes in hippocampus (256 genes up-regulated and 181 genes down-regulated) were significantly affected in music-exposing mice, which mainly involved in ion channel activity and/or synaptic transmission, cytoskeleton, development, transcription, hormone activity [emphasis added]. Our work may provide some hints for better understanding the effects of music on learning and memory.

To appropriately adapt to constant sensory stimulation, neurons in the auditory system are tuned to various acoustic characteristics, such as center frequencies, frequency modulations, and their combinations, particularly those combinations that carry species-specific communicative functions. The present study asks whether such tunings extend beyond acoustic and communicative functions to auditory self-relevance and expertise. More specifically, we examined the role of the listening biography-an individual's long term experience with a particular type of auditory input-on perceptual-neural plasticity. Two groups of expert instrumentalists (violinists and flutists) listened to matched musical excerpts played on the two instruments (J.S. Bach Partitas for solo violin and flute) while their cerebral hemodynamic responses were measured using fMRI. Our experimental design allowed for a comprehensive investigation of the neurophysiology (cerebral hemodynamic responses as measured by fMRI) of auditory expertise (i.e., when violinists listened to violin music and when flutists listened to flute music) and nonexpertise (i.e., when subjects listened to music played on the other instrument). We found an extensive cerebral network of expertise [emphasis added], which implicates increased sensitivity to musical syntax (BA 44), timbre (auditory association cortex), and sound-motor interactions (precentral gyrus) when listening to music played on the instrument of expertise (the instrument for which subjects had a unique listening biography). These findings highlight auditory self-relevance and expertise as a mechanism of perceptual-neural plasticity, and implicate neural tuning that includes and extends beyond acoustic and communication-relevant structures [emphasis added].

In atopic dermatitis patients with latex allergy, listening to Mozart reduced skin wheal responses induced by latex, but not by histamine, whereas listening to Beethoven failed to produce similar results. Listening to Mozart also decreased in vitro total IgE and latex-specific IgE production with concomitant skewing of the cytokine pattern toward the Th1 type, that is, an increase in Th1 cytokine production and decrease in Th2 cytokine production by peripheral blood mononuclear cells, whereas listening to Beethoven failed to do so. These results suggest that therapy using specific types of music may be an effective treatment of allergic diseases [emphasis added].

BACKGROUND: There is growing interest in the relation between the brain and music. The appealing similarity between brainwaves and the rhythms of music has motivated many scientists to seek a connection between them. A variety of transferring rules has been utilized to convert the brainwaves into music; and most of them are mainly based on spectra feature of EEG. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: In this study, audibly recognizable scale-free music was deduced from individual Electroencephalogram (EEG) waveforms. The translation rules include the direct mapping from the period of an EEG waveform to the duration of a note, the logarithmic mapping of the change of average power of EEG to music intensity according to the Fechner's law, and a scale-free based mapping from the amplitude of EEG to music pitch according to the power law. To show the actual effect, we applied the deduced sonification rules to EEG segments recorded during rapid-eye movement sleep (REM) and slow-wave sleep (SWS). The resulting music is vivid and different between the two mental states; the melody during REM sleep sounds fast and lively, whereas that in SWS sleep is slow and tranquil. 60 volunteers evaluated 25 music pieces, 10 from REM, 10 from SWS and 5 from white noise (WN), 74.3% experienced a happy emotion from REM and felt boring and drowsy when listening to SWS, and the average accuracy for all the music pieces identification is 86.8%(kappa = 0.800, P<0.001). We also applied the method to the EEG data from eyes closed, eyes open and epileptic EEG, and the results showed these mental states can be identified by listeners. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: The sonification rules may identify the mental states of the brain, which provide a real-time strategy for monitoring brain activities and are potentially useful to neurofeedback therapy [emphasis added].

GluR2, a major subunit in AMPA receptor, plays an important role in brain functional activity. We studied the effect of music exposure during development on the expression level of GluR2 proteins in the auditory cortex (AC) and anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) of SD rats. Rats were divided into three groups, Music1 (exposed to Nostalgy) group, Music2 (exposed to Wishmaster) group, and control (no music exposure) group. For music exposure groups, rats were exposed to music from postnatal day (PND) 14, and the expression levels of GluR2 proteins were determined at PND 28, 42 and 56. For the control group, the expression levels of GluR2 proteins were determined at PND1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 14, 21, 28, 42, and 56. Results showed an age-dependent expression of GluR2 proteins in control rats. In AC, exposure to Music2 dramatically increased the expression of GluR2, while exposure to Music1 had no effect. In ACC, we found remarkable discrepancies in time-dependent expression of GluR2 between music exposed rats and control rats. These results indicate that exposure to music can modify the expression level of GluR2 protein in AC and ACC [emphasis added].

Amusia (commonly referred to as tone-deafness) is a difficulty in discriminating pitch changes in melodies that affects around 4% of the human population. Amusia cannot be explained as a simple sensory impairment. Here we show that amusia is strongly related to a deficit in spatial processing in adults. Compared to two matched control groups (musicians and non-musicians), participants in the amusic group were significantly impaired on a visually presented mental rotation task. Amusic subjects were also less prone to interference in a spatial stimulus-response incompatibility task and performed significantly faster than controls in an interference task in which they were required to make simple pitch discriminations while concurrently performing a mental rotation task. This indicates that the processing of pitch in music normally depends on the cognitive mechanisms that are used to process spatial representations in other modalities [emphasis added].

The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of Bach's Magnificat on emotions, immune, and endocrine parameters in patients of specific infectious lung conditions. Participants (N = 40; 9 men & 31 women) ranging in age from 40 to 75 participated in the study. Patients were randomly allocated to an experimental and control group. During a 3-day period the experimental group received physiotherapy with the selected music, while the control group only received physiotherapy. ANOVA statistics indicate significant changes in the following parameters: POMS-scale, CD4+:CD8+ ratio, cortisol, and cortisol:DHEA ratio.

In traditional reading and CARE lessons (a curriculum used to help students learn to read and identify sounds), music is not played to enhance the learning environment. However, some studies have shown that when music is played during learning experiences there is more retention of the material. This research project compared the traditional teaching method with an enhanced learning environment. During a 6-week period of time, the researcher worked with 39 first grade students between the ages of 6 and 7 at a suburban elementary school in East Tennessee. All of the students were involved in both learning environments. In the enhanced learning environment classical music was played in the background during the lessons. During the first treatment, the students were exposed to traditional methods of teaching. At the end of the first 3-week segment, the students were given a test to determine how much information they retained. The students were then exposed to three weeks of classical music played in the background during their lessons. Following the treatment the students were given another test to determine how much information they retained. Paired-sample t-tests were used to compare scores of the tests of both the Reading and CARE lessons. The t-test for reading revealed that there was a significant difference between the scores of first grade students during the traditional method of teaching reading and the enhanced reading environment using music. The t-test for CARE also revealed that there was a significant difference between the scores of first grade students during the traditional method of teaching reading and the enhanced CARE environment using music. This study shows that the traditional learning environment for teaching reading was more effective for recall information. This study also shows that the enhanced learning environment for teaching CARE was more effective for recalling letter sounds and names, implying that the enhanced learning environment for teaching CARE is more effective. [emphasis added]

Brain correlates comparing pleasant and unpleasant states induced by three dissimilar masterpiece excerpts were obtained. Related emotional reactions to the music were studied using Principal Component Analysis of validated reports, fMRI, and EEG coherent activity. A piano selection by Bach and a symphonic passage from Mahler widely differing in musical features were used as pleasing pieces. A segment by Prodromidès was used as an unpleasing stimulus. Ten consecutive 30 s segments of each piece alternating with random static noise were played to 19 non-musician volunteers for a total of 30 min of auditory stimulation. Both brain approaches identified a left cortical network involved with pleasant feelings (Bach and Mahler vs. Prodromidès) including the left primary auditory area, posterior temporal, inferior parietal and prefrontal regions. While the primary auditory zone may provide an early affective quality, left cognitive areas may contribute to pleasant feelings when melodic sequences follow expected rules. In contrast, unpleasant emotions (Prodromidès vs. Bach and Mahler) involved the activation of the right frontopolar and paralimbic areas. Left activation with pleasant and right with unpleasant musical feelings is consistent with right supremacy in novel situations and left in predictable processes. When all musical excerpts were jointly compared to noise, in addition to bilateral auditory activation, the left temporal pole, inferior frontal gyrus, and frontopolar area were activated suggesting that cognitive and language processes were recruited in general responses to music. Sensory and cognitive integration seems required for musical emotion. [emphasis added]

The most important function of the cerebellum may be to coordinate motor function so that movements can be performed smoothly, but there are others. It has been shown that the cerebellum is involved in certain aspects of cognition and changes in affect. Also verbal deficits can be found after cerebellar lesions. The cerebellar cognitive affective syndrome is described, and the evidence for its existence discussed; in particular the use of neuroimaging studies. Different areas of the cerebellum have been identified as serving the various functions, and also their connections to the relevant parts of the cerebral cortex. Certain conditions merit special attention. The function of spatial navigation needs a major contribution from the cerebellum, and the problems of autism and impaired cognition are no doubt related to the enlarged cerebellum described in this disorder. The cognitive defects found in children with cerebellar ataxia supports its role in learning, and the study of music.

Harmonic tension-resolution patterns have long been hypothesized to be meaningful to listeners familiar with Western music. Even though it has been shown that specifically chosen musical pieces can prime meaningful concepts, the empirical evidence in favor of such a highly specific semantic pathway has been lacking. Here we show that 2 event-related potentials in response to harmonic expectancy violations, the early right anterior negativity (ERAN) and the N500, could be systematically modulated by simultaneously presented language material containing either a syntactic or a semantic violation. Whereas the ERAN was reduced only when presented concurrently with a syntactic language violation and not with a semantic language violation, this pattern was reversed for the N500. This is the first piece of evidence showing that tension-resolution patterns represent a route to meaning in music.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Controversial evidence suggests that music can enhance cognitive performance. In the present study, we examined whether listening to an excerpt of Vivaldi's "Four Seasons" had a positive effect on older adults' cognitive performance in two working memory tasks. METHODS: With a repeated-measures design, older adults were presented with the forward version of the digit span and phonemic fluency in classical music, white-noise and no-music conditions. RESULTS: Classical music significantly increased working memory performance compared with the no-music condition. [emphasis added] In addition, this effect did not occur with white noise.

Musical training is known to modify cortical organization. Here, we show that such modifications extend to subcortical sensory structures and generalize to processing of speech. Musicians had earlier and larger brainstem responses than nonmusician controls to both speech and music stimuli presented in auditory and audiovisual conditions, evident as early as 10 ms after acoustic onset. Phase-locking to stimulus periodicity, which likely underlies perception of pitch, was enhanced in musicians and strongly correlated with length of musical practice. In addition, viewing videos of speech (lip-reading) and music (instrument being played) enhanced temporal and frequency encoding in the auditory brainstem, particularly in musicians. These findings demonstrate practice-related changes in the early sensory encoding of auditory and audiovisual information.

Millennia ago Pythagoras noted a simple but remarkably powerful rule for the aesthetics of tone combinations: pairs of tones--intervals--with simple ratios such as an octave (ratio 2 : 1) or a fifth (ratio 3 : 2) were pleasant sounding (consonant), whereas intervals with complex ratios such as the major seventh (ratio 243 : 128) were harsh (dissonant). These Pythagorean ratio rules are the building blocks of Western classical music; however, their neurophysiologic basis is not known. Using functional MRI we have found the neurophysiologic correlates of the ratio rules. In musicians, the inferior frontal gyrus, superior temporal gyrus, medial frontal gyrus, inferior parietal lobule and anterior cingulate respond with progressively more activation to perfect consonances, imperfect consonances and dissonances. In nonmusicians only the right inferior frontal gyrus follows this pattern.

Language and music share a number of characteristics. Crucially, both domains depend on both rules and memorized representations. Double dissociations between the neurocognition of rule-governed and memory-based knowledge have been found in language but not music. Here, the neural bases of both of these aspects of music were examined with an event-related potential (ERP) study of note violations in melodies. Rule-only violations consisted of out-of-key deviant notes that violated tonal harmony rules in novel (unfamiliar) melodies. Memory-only violations consisted of in-key deviant notes in familiar well-known melodies; these notes followed musical rules but deviated from the actual melodies. Finally, out-of-key notes in familiar well-known melodies constituted violations of both rules and memory. All three conditions were presented, within-subjects, to healthy young adults, half musicians and half non-musicians. The results revealed a double dissociation, independent of musical training, between rules and memory: both rule violation conditions, but not the memory-only violations, elicited an early, somewhat right-lateralized anterior-central negativity (ERAN), consistent with previous studies of rule violations in music, and analogous to the early left-lateralized anterior negativities elicited by rule violations in language. In contrast, both memory violation conditions, but not the rule-only violation, elicited a posterior negativity that might be characterized as an N400, an ERP component that depends, at least in part, on the processing of representations stored in long-term memory, both in language and in other domains. The results suggest that the neurocognitive rule/memory dissociation extends from language to music, further strengthening the similarities between the two domains. [emphasis added]