It is well known that music not only may improve quality of life (QoL) but also have different effects on heart rate (HR) and its variability (HRV). Music emphasis and rhythmic phrases are tracked consistently by physiological variables. Autonomic responses are synchronized with music, which might therefore convey emotions through autonomic arousal during crescendos or rhythmic phrases. A greater modulation of HR, HRV and modulations in cardiac autonomic nerve activity was revealed with a greater effect for music performance than music perception. Reactions to music are considered subjective, but studies suggested that cardiorespiratory variables are influenced under different circumstances. It has been shown that relaxing music decreases significantly the level of anxiety in a preoperative setting to a greater extent than orally administered midazolam [emphasis added] (p < 0,001). Higher effectiveness and absence of apparent adverse effects make preoperative relaxing music a useful alternative to midazolam for premedication. In addition, there is sufficient practical evidence of stress reduction to suggest that a proposed regimen of listening to music while resting in bed after open heart surgery. Music intervention should be offered as an integral part of the multimodal regime administered to the patients that have undergone cardiovascular surgery. It is a supportive source that increases relaxation. Music is also effective in under conditions and music can be utilized as an effective intervention for patients with depressive symptoms, geriatrics and in pain, intensive care or palliative medicine [emphasis added]. However, careful selected music that incorporates a patient's own preferences may offer an effective method to reduce anxiety and to improve quality of life. The most benefit on health is visible in classic music, meditation music whereas heavy metal music or technosounds are even ineffective or dangerous and will lead to stress and/or life threatening arrhythmias. There are many composers most effectively to improve QoL, particularly Bach, Mozart and Italian composers are "ideal [emphasis added]".

The ME [Mozart Effect] was described for the first time in 1993. Subsequently other studies with similar designs were performed. The present study, therefore, proposes: (i) to verify the existence of the benefits of exposure to music in elderly subjects with mild cognitive impairment (MCI), (ii) to explore whether it is possible to find any lasting improvement after training, conducted for a long period of time, with such musical pieces, in the measurable cognitive performances. The study we conducted showed that the ME is present in geriatric patients with MCI; the influence on spatial-temporal abilities remains constant in time if the stimulation is maintained [emphasis added]. The continuation of our study will consist of increasing the number of individuals examined and in having them listen to music during the study of ECG rhythms and during the acquisition of cerebral functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), and, at the same time, testing them by neuropsychometric methods.

It has been extremely difficult to quantify temporal aspects of higher level human brain function. We have found that mental rehearsals of musical performance of several minutes duration provide such a measure in that they can be highly reproducible, varying to less than 1%. These remarkable results pose fundamental neurophysiological problems [emphasis added]. It is necessary to understand the underlying neuronal bases for this accuracy in the spatial-temporal activity of billions of neurons over minutes without sensory input. Further, they present a powerful constraint on neuronal models of brain function. Such highly reproducible (in duration) mental rehearsals might be used in conjunction with multielectrode EEG recordings to look for reproducible spatial-temporal patterns. Further, we suggest that our results may provide an extremely useful behavioural correlate for high level performance.

Several recent studies have investigated the effectiveness of various behavioral interventions on the cognitive performance of subjects with Alzheimer's disease (AD). Simulations of Shaw's structured model of the cortex led to the predictions that music might enhance spatial-temporal reasoning. A subsequent behavioral study in college students documented an improvement in scores on a spatial-temporal task after listening to a Mozart piano sonata. In this study, we investigated the enhancement of scores on a spatial-temporal task after a Mozart listening condition in a set of twins who are discordant for AD. After listening to an excerpt from a Mozart piano sonata, the AD twin showed considerable improvement on the spatial-temporal task when compared with pretest scores [emphasis added]. Furthermore, no enhancement of scores was seen following either of the control conditions (i.e., silence or 1930s popular tunes). This finding suggests that music may be used as a tool to investigate functional plasticity in Alzheimer's disease and to better understand the underlying pathophysiology.

Motivated by predictions from the structured trion model of the cortex, based on Mountcastle's columnar organizational principle, behavioral experiments have demonstrated a causal short-term enhancement of spatial-temporal reasoning in college students following listening to a Mozart Sonata (K.448) but not in control conditions. An EEG coherence study reported presence of right frontal and left temporoparietal activity induced by listening to the Mozart Sonata, which carried over into the spatial-temporal tasks in three of the seven subjects. In this paper, we present further predictions from the trion model and discuss how the new SYMMETRIC analysis method can be used in EEG recordings to help determine the neurophysiological basis of specific music enhancing spatial-temporal reasoning. We conclude with potential clinical applications of major significance [emphasis added].

OBJECTIVES: An animal model of the 'generalized Mozart effect' (GME) - enhanced/normalized higher brain function in response to music exposure - has been established. We extend those results in two studies using another species (mice). Study 1: (1) maze testing after music exposure was extended to a minimum of 6 hours; (2) no exposure to music in utero. Study 2: (1) music exposure time further reduced; (2) maze testing extended to 24 hours. METHODS: Study 1: two mouse groups were exposed to music continuously for 10 hours per day for 10 weeks (Group I: Mozart's Sonata K.448, Group II: Beethoven's Fur Elise). After 10 weeks, the ability to negotiate a T-maze was assessed (recording working time in maze, number of errors). Maze ability was tested 6 hours following the last music exposure. Study 2: two mouse groups were exposed periodically to music (58% silence) 10 hours per day for 10 weeks. Experiments after 10 weeks examined the groups' abilities to run the maze (recording working time/errors). Experiments were conducted 24 hours following the last music exposure. RESULTS: The Mozart group exhibited significant enhancements compared with the control mice in both studies, i.e. significantly lower working time (p<0.05) and committed fewer errors [emphasis added]. DISCUSSION: Observation of GME in another species supports its generality for the mammalian cortex. The absence of a GME in fMRI studies for the control music also indicates a neurophysiological basis. With extended exposure, GME is a long-term effect, indicating potential clinical importance. [emphasis added] It has been demonstrated that GME reduces neuropathological spiking significantly in epileptics. We discuss the relevance of this study for epilepsy treatment.

The "Mozart Effect," using the Piano Sonata in D Major (K.448), was examined in patients with seizures. In 23 of 29 instances significant decreases in epileptiform activity were noted from patients even in coma [emphasis added], with status epilepticus or with periodic lateralized epileptiform discharges (PLEDs). The effect may be immediate or require 40-300 sec to manifest itself. The change in the amount of ictal activity in one patient in coma was from 62% before the music to 21% during Mozart. Amplitudes of these discharges also have often decreased. Examples of PLEDs on both temporal areas are shown in which the effect was only on the left temporal area but in other patients only on the right temporal area. Brain maps during the music showed theta and alpha activity decreased on the central areas, while delta waves increased on the frontal midline area. The basis of this effect is likely that the superorganization of the cerebral cortex with its highly structured radial columns seen throughout both hemispheres may resonate with the superior architecture of Mozart's music [emphasis added].

PURPOSE: Certain music has been shown to improve mental function, leading to what is known as the Mozart effect. This study measured the impact of Mozart's Sonata for two pianos in D major, K.448, on different epileptic foci of epileptiform discharge in Taiwanese children (n=58) with seizure disorders and investigated the characteristics of the musical stimulus presented that resulted in epileptiform discharge reduction. METHODS: We examined the relationship between the number of discharges with the foci of epileptiform discharge (n=6), sleep state, gender, and mentality. A continuous electroencephalogram was recorded before, during and after exposure to Mozart's Sonata for two pianos in D major, K.448 (piano K.448), and the frequencies of discharges were compared. The study was repeated a week later using digitally computerized string version of the same musical stimulus (string K.448), in patients who responded to piano K.448 with the largest reduction in interictal discharges (n=11). RESULTS: Interictal discharges were reduced in most (81.0%) patients and varied greatly (33.10+/-28.33%) as they listened to the piano K.448 (more fundamental tones and lower harmonics). Patients with generalized or central discharge showed the most improvement. In most patients (76.1%), the decrease in epileptiform discharges continued after the music ended [emphasis added]. The state of wakefulness, gender and mentality did not affect the results. Although the string K.448 had a larger number of higher harmonics in the spectrogram analysis, the discharges were not reduced at all when listening to this music. CONCLUSION: These results suggest that listening to Mozart K.448 for two pianos reduced epileptiform discharges in children with Epilepsy [emphasis added]. This study suggests that it is possible to reduce the number of epileptiform discharges in some patients by optimizing the fundamental tones and minimizing the higher frequency harmonics.

Behavioral studies, motivated by columnar cortical model predictions, have given evidence for music causally enhancing spatial-temporal reasoning. A wide range of behavioral experiments showed that listening to a Mozart Sonata (K.448) gave subsequent enhancements. An EEG coherence study gave evidence for a carryover from that Mozart Sonata listening condition to the subsequent spatial-temporal task in specific cortical regions. Here we present fMRI studies comparing cortical blood flow activation by the Mozart Sonata vs. other music. In addition to expected temporal cortex activation, we report dramatic statistically significant differences in activation by the Mozart Sonata (in comparison to Beethoven's Fur Elise and 1930s piano music) in dorsolateral pre-frontal cortex, occipital cortex and cerebellum [emphasis added], all expected to be important for spatial-temporal reasoning. It would be of great interest to explicitly test this expectation. We propose an fMRI study comparing (subject by subject) brain areas activated in music listening conditions and in spatial-temporal tasks.

Motivated by predictions from the structured trion model of the cortex, behavioral experiments have demonstrated a causal short-term enhancement of spatial-temporal reasoning in college students following exposure to a Mozart sonata, but not in control conditions. The coherence analysis of electroencephalogram (EEG) recordings is well suited to the neurophysiological investigation of this behavioral enhancement. Here we report the presence of right frontal and left temporo-parietal coherent activity induced by listening to Mozart which carried over into the spatial-temporal tasks [emphasis added] in three of our seven subjects. This carry-over effect was compared to EEG coherence analysis of spatial-temporal-tasks after listening to text. We suggest that these EEG coherence results provide the beginnings of understanding of the neurophysiological basis of the causal enhancement of spatial-temporal reasoning by listening to specific music. The observed long-lasting coherent EEG pattern might be evidence for structured sequences in cortical dynamics which extend over minutes.

The efficiency of recognition of masked visual images (Arabic numerals) under conditions of listening to classical (intensity 62 dB) or rock music (25 dB) increased. Coherence of potential in the frontal cortical region characteristic of the masked image recognition increased under conditions of listening to music. The changes in intercenter EEG relations were correlated with the formation of "the recognition dominant" at the behavioral level. Such behavioral and EEG changes were not observed during listening to louder music (85 dB) and listening to music of other styles, however, the coherence between potentials of the temporal and motor areas of the right hemisphere increased, and the latency of hand motor reactions decreased. The results suggest that the "recognition dominant" is formed under conditions of establishment of certain relations between the levels of excitation in the corresponding centers. These findings should be taken into consideration in case if it were necessary to increase the efficiency of the recognition.

BACKGROUND/AIMS: Premedication for endoscopy promotes patient cooperation and makes subsequent examinations more acceptable. Music therapy is widely used in the treatment of acute and chronic pain. Therefore, we investigated the effects of music therapy on pain and on salivary cortisol levels in patients undergoing screening colonoscopy. METHODOLOGY: The subjects were 29 consecutive patients undergoing colonoscopy for various reasons. Patients were randomly assigned to undergo colonoscopy while listening to music (n=15) or while not listening to music (n=14). Cortisol levels were measured in samples of saliva obtained before and after colonoscopy. After colonoscopy, patients were asked to rate their maximum pain during colonoscopy. RESULTS: Patients who listened to music during colonoscopy tended to have lower pain scores [emphasis added]. Salivary cortisol levels increased significantly less in the group receiving music. CONCLUSIONS: Music therapy during colonoscopy markedly reduces fear-related stress [emphasis added], as indicated by changes in salivary cortisol levels.

OBJECTIVE: The study objective was to assess the effect of music on the physiologic and psychologic parameters in patients undergoing application of a C-clamp after percutaneous coronary interventions (PCI). DESIGN: A repeated-measures randomized controlled trial was used. SETTING: The study took place in three intensive care units in Hong Kong. PATIENTS: Sixty-six patients undergoing application of a C-clamp after PCI were recruited. OUTCOME MEASURES: Physiologic parameters were blood pressure, heart rate, respiratory rate, and oxygen saturation. Psychologic parameters were measured using the University of California at Los Angeles universal pain score. INTERVENTION: Patients were randomized to receive 45 minutes of music therapy or 45 minutes of an uninterrupted rest period. Three types of music were used, including Chinese classical music, religious music, and Western classical music that had slow beats and was relaxing. The data were collected from September 2004 to December 2005. RESULTS: In the experimental group there were statistically significant reductions in heart rate (P < .001), respiratory rate (P < .001), and oxygen saturation (P < .001), and a lower pain score [emphases added] (P < .001) than in the control group. CONCLUSION: Music is a simple, safe, and effective method of reducing potentially harmful physiologic and psychologic responses arising from pain [emphasis added] in patients post-PCI undergoing a C-clamp procedure.

A connection between preferences for heavy metal, rap, reggae, electronic dance music, and substance use has previously been established. However, evidence as to the gender-specific links between substance use and a wider range of music genres in a nationally representative sample of adolescents has to date been missing. In 2003, the Dutch government funded the Dutch National School Survey on Substance Use (DNSSSU), a self-report questionnaire among a representative school-based sample of 7,324 adolescents aged 12 to 16 years, assessed music preference, tobacco, and alcohol use and a set of relevant covariates related to both substance use and music preference. Overall, when all other factors were controlled, punk/hardcore, techno/hardhouse, and reggae were associated with more substance use, while pop and classical music marked less substance use. While prior research showed that liking heavy metal and rap predicts substance use, in this study a preference for rap/hip-hop only indicated elevated smoking among girls, whereas heavy metal was associated with less smoking among boys and less drinking among girls. The types of music that mark increased substance use may vary historically and cross-culturally, but, in general, preferences for nonmainstream music are associated positively with substance use, and preferences for mainstream pop and types of music preferred by adults (classical music) mark less substance use among adolescents [emphasis added]. As this is a correlational study no valid conclusions in the direction of causation of the music-substance use link can be drawn.